Incontinence, Urinary: Nonsurgical Therapies |
INTRODUCTION | ¡@ |
Background: Urinary incontinence is defined by the International Continence Society as the involuntary loss of urine that represents a hygienic or social problem to the individual. This author defines urinary incontinence as any involuntary loss of urine. Different types of incontinence exist. They include stress incontinence, urge incontinence, mixed incontinence, overflow incontinence, and functional incontinence. Treatment of urinary incontinence must carefully be tailored to the specific cause of incontinence.
Stress incontinence may be treated with surgery, pelvic floor physiotherapy, and anti-incontinent devices. Urge incontinence may be treated with changes in diet, behavioral modification, pelvic-floor exercises, and/or anticholinergic medications. Mixed incontinence often requires anticholinergics, in addition to surgery. Overflow incontinence is treated with some type of catheter regimen. Functional incontinence is self-limited when the underlying cause is identified and treated in an appropriate fashion.
As a general rule, the first choice for treatment is the least invasive, with the least potential complications for the patient. Examples of noninvasive treatments include medications or exercises; however, the least invasive treatment may not afford the best outcome in certain situations. In specific situations, surgery may be the most effective form of managing urinary incontinence.
¡@
Stress incontinence is urinary incontinence that occurs coincident with increased intra-abdominal pressure in the absence of uninhibited detrusor contraction. In stress incontinence, the bladder outlet has poor resistance to urinary flow. The most common cause of stress incontinence is urethral hypermobility secondary to poor anatomic pelvic support. A less common cause of stress incontinence is an inherent defect in the urethra known as intrinsic sphincter deficiency.
Urge incontinence is involuntary urine loss that occurs due to detrusor overactivity. Urge incontinence may be a result of detrusor myopathy, neuropathy, or a combination of both. When the identifiable cause is unknown, it is termed idiopathic urge incontinence. Symptoms of overactive bladder or urge incontinence in the absence of neurologic causes are known as detrusor instability.
Mixed incontinence is urinary incontinence resulting from a combination of stress and urge incontinence. In mixed incontinence, the bladder outlet is weak and the detrusor is overactive. A classic example of mixed incontinence is a patient with meningomyelocele and an incompetent bladder neck with a hyper-reflexic detrusor; however, a combination of urethral hypermobility and detrusor instability is a more common scenario.
Reflex incontinence occurs as a result of neurologic impairment of the central nervous system. Common neurologic disorders associated with reflex incontinence include cerebrovascular accident (CVA or stroke), Parkinson disease, and brain tumors. Reflex incontinence also occurs in patients with spinal cord injuries and multiple sclerosis. When patients with suprapontine or suprasacral spinal cord lesions manifest symptoms of urge incontinence, this is known as detrusor hyperreflexia.
Overflow incontinence occurs because of overdistention of the detrusor muscle. Overflow incontinence may occur as a result of bladder outlet obstruction, detrusor atony, or neurologic impairment of the urinary bladder. Common causes of bladder outlet obstruction in men include benign prostatic hyperplasia, vesical neck contracture, and urethral strictures. In women, urethral obstruction after anti-incontinence surgery such as pubovaginal sling or bladder neck suspension can result in iatrogenically induced overflow incontinence. Some common neurologic causes of overflow incontinence include herniated lumbar disc, diabetic cystopathy, and peripheral neuropathy. Less common causes of overflow incontinence include AIDS, genital herpes affecting the perineal area, and neurosyphilis. A decompensated detrusor resulting from a neurologic disorder is known as an areflexic detrusor.
Frequency:
¡@
Urinary incontinence is an under-diagnosed and under-reported medical problem. An estimated 50-70% of women with urinary incontinence fail to seek medical evaluation and treatment because of social stigma. Only 5% of incontinent individuals in the community and 2% in nursing homes receive appropriate medical evaluation and treatment. Incontinent patients often put up with this condition for 6-9 years before seeking medical therapy.
Stress incontinence affects 15-60% of women. Stress incontinence is a disorder of the young and the old. Over one fourth of nulliparous young college athletes experience stress incontinence when participating in sports.
Mortality/Morbidity: Chronic urinary incontinence is a major problem in the older population, particularly in patients in nursing homes. Chronic urinary incontinence is a health hazard that affects 10-35% of adults and 50% of the 1.5 million residents in nursing homes.
Urinary incontinence-related morbidities include prolonged hospital admission (35%), urinary tract infections (2%), contact dermatitis (1.6%), and falls (1%). Costs incurred for treating incontinence-related complications approach $2.8 billion compared to $35 million for diagnostic and treatment costs.
Race: Although the information regarding urinary incontinence in different races is sparse, data are emerging that race may play an important role in the prevalence and likelihood of reporting of incontinence. There also may be effects on prevalence of incontinence due to differences in the anatomic morphology of the urinary sphincter mechanism for different races.
CLINICAL | ¡@ |
History: One popular way to classify urinary incontinence is to define it according to symptom presentation. Although symptom classification is helpful in describing bladder and urethra function, the symptoms of urinary incontinence are not always clear markers for a proper diagnosis. Furthermore, the symptom complex alone does not allow accurate localization of the problem site, such as the bladder, urethra, or both.
Classification of urinary incontinence into types allows the clinician to make an educated guess at a particular anatomic abnormality that warrants further investigation. The 5 major types of urinary incontinence are as follows:
Overflow incontinence may occur in the setting of infravesical bladder outlet obstruction or nonfunctioning detrusor. Causes of bladder outlet obstruction include BPH, urethral stricture, posterior urethral valve, or urethral obstruction after a pubovaginal sling. Causes of nonfunctioning detrusor include detrusor areflexia (sensory or motor paralytic bladder due to underlying neurologic disease) or atonic bladder that has lost its muscular tone (chronic overdistension resulting in decompensated detrusor) in the absence of neurologic cause. Patients complain of a sense of incomplete emptying, slow-flowing urine, and urinary dribbling.
DIFFERENTIALS | ¡@ |
Other Problems to be Considered:
Transient incontinence
Ureterovaginal fistula
Vesicovaginal fistula
Urethrovaginal fistula
Ectopic ureter
Normal vaginal secretions
WORKUP | ¡@ |
Lab Studies:
¡@
Imaging Studies:
¡@
Other Tests:
¡@
Marshall test, otherwise known as Marshall-Bonney test, is performed by placing an index finger and the second finger on either side of the bladder neck. With the bladder relatively full, the patient is instructed to perform Valsalva or cough. Two fingers at the bladder neck serve to support the proximal urethra during Valsalva maneuver. Absence of leakage with bladder neck elevation and presence of leakage with loss of bladder neck support confirms SUI due to urethral hypermobility. However, Marshall test is neither sensitive nor specific enough to diagnose SUI by today's standards. Thus, Marshall test is not widely practiced today.
Procedures:
¡@
TREATMENT | ¡@ |
Medical Care: Stress incontinence may be treated with surgical and nonsurgical means. Urge incontinence may be treated with behavioral modification or with bladder-relaxing agents.
Mixed incontinence may require medications as well as surgery. Overflow incontinence may be treated with some type of catheter regimen. Functional incontinence may be resolved by treating the underlying cause, such as urinary tract infection, constipation, or by simply changing a few drugs.
Do not consider anti-incontinence products to be a cure-all for urinary incontinence; however, judicious use of pads and devices to contain urine loss and maintain skin integrity are extremely useful in selected cases. Absorbent pads and internal and external collecting devices have an important role in the management of chronic incontinence.
The criteria for use of these products are fairly clear-cut, and they are
beneficial for women who meet the following conditions: (1) women who fail all
other treatments and remain incontinent, (2) women who are too ill
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
Some patients respond well to temporary continuous Foley catheter drainage. Their bladder capacity returns to normal and voluntary detrusor pressure improves. Return of spontaneous voiding is more likely for patients without neurologic injury. This usually takes at least 1 week of catheter drainage depending on the degree of bladder muscle injury. If it has not resolved after 4 weeks, then the bladder is unlikely to recover on catheter drainage alone.
If the underlying cause of the overflow problem is bladder outlet obstruction, these patients may be able to return to normal voiding after relief of obstruction. If this is unsuccessful or not feasible, the intermittent catheterization usually is preferred for long-term therapy if logistically possible. Otherwise, a permanent catheter may need to be considered.
Different types of bladder catheterization include indwelling urethral catheters, suprapubic tubes, and self-intermittent catheterization.
The standard catheter size for treating urinary retention is 16F or 18F, with a 5-mL balloon filled with 5-10 mL of sterile water. Larger catheters (eg, 22F, 24F) with bigger balloons are used for treating grossly bloody urine found in other urologic conditions or diseases. Increasing the balloon size to treat a catheter that leaks is not appropriate. Treat leakage around a catheter by eliminating the cause of the leakage. (Change or irrigate the catheter if it is blocked. Empty the drainage bag if it is full. Treat any bladder spasms or uninhibited contractions with appropriate anticholinergic medications.) Proper management of indwelling urethral catheters varies somewhat per individual patient.
The usual practice is to change indwelling catheters once every month. The catheter and bag are replaced on a monthly basis; however, catheters that develop encrustations and problems with urine drainage need to be changed more frequently. All indwelling catheters in the urinary bladder for more than 2 weeks become colonized with bacteria. Bacterial colonization does not mean the patient has a clinical bladder infection.
Symptoms of bladder infection include foul odor, purulent urine, and hematuria. Fever with flank pain are often present if upper tracts are involved. If a bladder infection occurs, change the catheter and the entire drainage system. The urinary drainage bag does not need to be routinely disinfected to prevent infection. A dilute vinegar solution can be used to dissolve the encrustations that tend to form in the drainage bags. Routine irrigation of catheters is not required. However, some authors favor the use of 0.25% acetic acid irrigation because it is bacteriostatic, minimizes catheter encrustation, and cuts down the odor. When used, 30 mL is instilled into the bladder and allowed to freely drain on a BID basis. Similarly, 30 cc of hydrogen peroxide can be added to the drainage bags immediately before connecting them to the Foley catheter. This supposedly reduces odor and bacterial growth by using a safe, nontoxic, and inexpensive agent.
Patients do not have to be on continuous antibiotics while using the catheter. As a matter of fact, continuous use of antibiotics while a catheter is used is contraindicated. Prolonged use of antibiotics to prevent infection actually may cause paradoxical generation of bacteria that are resistant to common antibiotics. Indwelling use of a Foley catheter in individuals who are homebound requires close supervision by a visiting nurse and additional personal hygiene care.
In spite of its seeming advantages, the use of a Foley catheter for a prolonged period of time (eg, months or years) is strongly discouraged. Chronic dependence on these catheters is extremely risky because long-term use of urethral catheters poses significant health hazards. Indwelling urethral catheters are a significant cause of urinary tract infections that involve the urethra, bladder, and kidneys. Within 2-4 weeks after catheter insertion, bacteria will be present in the bladder of most women. Asymptomatic bacterial colonization is common and does not pose a health hazard. However, untreated symptomatic urinary tract infections may lead to urosepsis and death. The death rate of nursing home residents with urethral catheters has been found to be 3 times higher than residents without catheters.
The use of a urethral catheter is contraindicated in the treatment of urge incontinence. Other problems associated with indwelling urethral catheters include encrustation of the catheter, bladder spasms resulting in urinary leakage, hematuria, and urethritis. More severe complications include formation of bladder stones, development of periurethral abscess, renal damage, and urethral erosion.
Another problem of long-term catheterization is bladder contracture, which occurs with urethral catheters as well as suprapubic tubes. Anticholinergic therapy and intermittent clamping of the catheter in combination have been reported to be beneficial for preserving the bladder integrity with long-term catheter use. Individuals who did not use the medication and daily clamping regimen experienced a decrease in bladder capacity and vesicoureteral reflux. For this reason, some physicians recommend using anticholinergic medications with intermittent clamping of the catheter if lower urinary tract reconstruction is anticipated in the future.
It is important to note that Foley catheter clamping is not a benign procedure. Potential risks include cystitis, pyelonephritis, urosepsis, and bladder perforation. Thus, Foley catheter clamping is not commonly employed except in those rare occasions where bladder reconstruction is being contemplated. The clamping should be performed under strict supervision by monitoring patient comfort and bladder capacity. Coexisting urinary tract infections must be eradicated prior to proceeding with this endeavor.
Maximum time limit on Foley clamping to expand the bladder should be tailored to the individual but should not exceed 3-4 hours. Patients with small capacity bladders do not tolerate Foley clamping for more than 1 hour. Foley catheter should be unclamped immediately if the patient complains of fever, suprapubic pain, obvious bladder distention, leakage around the Foley catheter, or changes in hemodynamics are noted.
Restrict the use of indwelling catheters to the following situations: (1) as comfort measures for the terminally ill, (2) to avoid contamination or to promote healing of severe pressure sores, (3) in case of inoperable urethral obstruction that prevents bladder emptying, (4) in severely impaired individuals for whom alternative interventions are not an option, (5) when an individual lives alone and a caregiver is unavailable to provide other supportive measures, (6) for acutely ill persons in whom accurate fluid balance must be monitored, and (7) for severely impaired persons for whom bed and clothing changes are painful or disruptive. However, when long-term use of a urethral catheter is anticipated, a suprapubic catheter is an attractive alternative.
Some type of catheter bag tubing support usually is recommended to prevent inadvertent pressure on the Foley catheter balloon and bladder neck tissue. Adequate slack should be afforded to allow reasonable, unimpeded leg motion without stretching the Foley catheter. We also recommend the routine use of a water-soluble surgical lubricant to the catheter where it exits the urethra, especially in males because of the soreness that can be produced there. The lubricant affords significant symptomatic relief.
Many advantages of suprapubic catheters exist. With a suprapubic catheter, the risk of urethral damage is eliminated. Multiple voiding trials may be performed without having to remove the catheter. Because the catheter comes out of the lower abdomen rather than the vaginal area, a suprapubic tube is more patient-friendly. Bladder spasms occur less often because the suprapubic catheter does not irritate the trigone like the urethral catheter. In addition, suprapubic tubes are more sanitary for the individual, and bladder infections are minimized because the tube is away from the perineum.
Suprapubic catheters are changed easily by either a nurse or a doctor. Unlike the urethral catheter, a suprapubic tube is less likely to become dislodged because the exit site is so small. When the tube is removed, the hole in the abdomen quickly seals itself within 1-2 days.
Indications for suprapubic catheters include short-term use following gynecologic, urologic, and other types of surgery. Suprapubic catheters may be used whenever the clinical situation requires the use of a bladder drainage device; however, suprapubic catheters are contraindicated in persons with chronic unstable bladders or intrinsic sphincter deficiency because involuntary urine loss is not prevented. A suprapubic tube does not prevent bladder spasms from occurring in unstable bladders nor does it improve the urethral closure mechanism in an incompetent urethra.
Potential complications with chronic suprapubic catheterization are similar to those associated with indwelling urethral catheters, including leakage around the catheter, bladder stone formation, urinary tract infection, and catheter obstruction. During the initial placement of a suprapubic tube, a potential for bowel injury exists. Although uncommon, bowel perforation is known to occur with first-time placement of suprapubic tubes. Other potential complications include cellulitis around the tube site and hematoma. If the suprapubic tube falls out inadvertently, the exit hole of the tube will seal up and close quickly within 24 hours if the tube is not replaced with a new one. If tube dislodgment is recognized promptly, a new tube can be reinserted quickly and painlessly as long as the tube site remains patent.
A suprapubic catheter is an alternative solution to an indwelling urethral catheter in women who require chronic bladder drainage. Potential problems unique to suprapubic catheters include skin infection, hematoma, bowel injury, and problems with catheter reinsertion. Long-term management of a suprapubic tube also may be problematic if the health care provider lacks the knowledge and expertise of suprapubic catheters or if the homebound individual lacks quick access to a medical center in case of an emergency. In the right hands, the suprapubic catheter affords many advantages over long-term urethral catheters.
Many studies of young individuals with spinal cord injuries have shown that intermittent catheterization is preferable to indwelling catheters (ie, urethral catheter, suprapubic tube) for men and women. Intermittent catheterization has become a healthy alternative to indwelling catheters for individuals with chronic urinary retention due to an obstructed bladder, a weak bladder, or a nonfunctioning bladder. Young children with myelomeningocele have benefited from the use of intermittent catheterization. In addition, self-catheterization is recommended by some surgeons for women during the acute healing process after anti-incontinence surgery.
Intermittent catheterization may be performed using a soft, red, rubber catheter or a short, rigid, plastic catheter. The use of plastic catheters is preferable to red rubber catheters because they are easier to clean and last longer. The bladder must be drained on a regular basis, either based on a timed interval (eg, on awakening, every 3-6 hours during the day, and before bed) or based on bladder volume. Remember that the average adult bladder holds approximately 400-500 mL of urine. Ideally, the amount drained each time should not exceed that amount. This drainage limit may require decreasing the fluid intake or increasing the frequency of catheterizations. So, if catheterization is being performed every 6 hours and the amount drained is 700 mL, increase the frequency of catheterization to, perhaps, every 4 hours to keep the volume drained between 400-500 mL. The idea is to simulate normal voiding. Usually, the average adult empties the bladder 4-5 times a day. Thus, catheterization should occur 4-5 times a day; however, individual catheterization schedules may vary, depending on the amount of fluid taken in during the day.
Candidates for intermittent catheterization must have motivation and intact physical and cognitive abilities. Anyone who has good use of her hands and arms can perform self-catheterization. Young children and the older population are able to do this every day without any problems. For individuals who are impaired, a home caregiver or a visiting nurse can be instructed to perform intermittent catheterization. Self-catheterization may be done at home, at work, or basically anywhere. Intermittent catheterization may be performed using either a sterile catheter or a nonsterile clean catheter. Intermittent catheterization, using a clean technique, is recommended for young individuals with a bladder that cannot empty who do not have any other available options. Patients should wash their hands with soap and water. Sterile gloves are not necessary. Clean intermittent catheterization results in lower rates of infection than the rates noted with indwelling catheters.
Studies show that in patients with spinal cord injuries, the incidence of bacteria in the bladder is 1-3% per catheterization and 1-4 episodes of bacteriuria per 100 days of intermittent catheterization, occurring 4 times a day. Furthermore, the infections that do occur usually are managed without complications.
As a general rule, routine use of long-term suppressive therapy with antibiotics in patients with chronic clean intermittent catheterization is not recommended. The use of chronic suppressive antibiotic therapy in people regularly using clean intermittent catheterization is undesirable because it may result in the emergence of resistant bacterial strains.
In high-risk populations, such as patients with an internal prosthesis (eg, artificial heart valve, artificial hip) or patients who are immunosuppressed because of age or disease, decide the use of antibiotic therapy for asymptomatic bacteriuria on individual merits. For the older population and individuals with a weak immune system, the sterile technique of intermittent catheterization has been recommended. Persons who are older are at higher risk than younger persons for developing bacteriuria and other complications caused by intermittent catheterization because they do not have a strong defense system against infection. Although the incidence of infection and other complications for patients who are older using sterile versus clean intermittent catheterization is not well established, it appears that sterile intermittent catheterization is the safest method for this high-risk population.
Potential advantages of performing intermittent catheterization include patient autonomy, freedom from indwelling catheter and bags, and unimpeded sexual relations. Potential complications of intermittent catheterization include bladder infection, urethral trauma, urethral inflammation, and stricture. Concurrent use of anticholinergic therapy will maintain acceptable intravesical pressures and also prevent bladder contracture. Studies have shown that long-term use of intermittent catheterization appears to be preferable to indwelling catheterization (ie, urethral catheter, suprapubic tube), with respect to urinary tract infections, renal failure, and the development of stones within the bladder or kidneys.
Surgical Care: Surgical care for stress incontinence involves procedures that increase urethral outlet resistance. Operations that increase urethral resistance include bladder neck suspension, periurethral bulking therapy, pubovaginal sling, and artificial urinary sphincter. Surgical care for urge incontinence involves procedures that improve bladder compliance or bladder capacity such as detrusor myomectomy or Ingelman-Sundberg procedure. Ingelman-Sundberg procedure is an operation designed to transect the preganglionic pelvic nerves near the inferior surface of the bladder. Additional operations that increase bladder compliance and/or capacity include sacral nerve modulation and bladder augmentation.
Diet: The fact that certain foods in a daily diet can worsen symptoms of urinary frequency and urge incontinence is well known. If a patient's diet contains dietary stimulants, changes in her diet may help in ameliorating incontinence symptoms. Dietary stimulants are substances contained within the food or drink that either cause or exacerbate irritative voiding symptoms. By eliminating or minimizing the intake of dietary stimulants, unwanted bladder symptoms can be improved or possibly cured. Avoidance of dietary stimulants begins with consumer awareness through careful label reading and maintaining a daily diet diary. Experimenting with dietary changes is not for everyone and should be done on an individual basis. Certain food products exacerbate symptoms of urge incontinence.
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
In addition, dehydration contributes to constipation. If a patient has a problem with constipation, recommend eating a high fiber diet, receiving adequate hydration, and administering laxatives.
¡@
Advise these individuals to elevate their lower extremities several hours during the late afternoon or evening to stimulate a natural diuresis and limit the amount of edema present at bedtime. Support hose (Jobst) or intermittent, sequential compression devices (SCDs) used briefly at the end of the day can reduce lower extremity edema and minimize night time diuresis, thus improving sleep.
Lastly, the judicious use of diuretics has been associated with a decrease in lower-extremity edema and lower nighttime urine volumes. If patients already are taking diuretics, altering the administration time of the diuretics may decrease nighttime voiding and incontinence. Depending on other medical conditions, changing the time of diuretic administration to the morning may prevent large nighttime urinary volumes.
Activity: Anti-incontinence exercises emphasize rehabilitating and strengthening the pelvic floor muscles that are critical in maintaining urinary continence. Pelvic floor muscles also are known as levator ani muscles. They are named levator muscles because they function to levitate or elevate the pelvic organs into their proper place. When levator muscles weaken and fail, pelvic prolapse and stress incontinence result. An anatomic defect of the levator ani musculature requires physical rehabilitation. If aggressive physical therapy does not work, surgery is warranted.
Pelvic muscle exercises may be used alone, augmented with vaginal cones, reinforced with biofeedback therapy, or with electrical stimulation. Burgio et al reported that behavioral treatment is a safe and effective intervention that should be used as a first-line treatment for urge and mixed incontinence. If the patient is using abdominal muscles or contracting their buttocks, they are not doing these exercises properly. If patients have difficulty identifying the levator muscles, biofeedback therapy may be instituted. For selected individuals, electrical stimulation further enhances pelvic muscle rehabilitation therapy.
¡@
¡@
¡@
Another regimen is to perform the exercises for 10 minutes twice a day using an audiocassette tape. The audiocassette coaches the patient to contract the levator ani muscles for a count of 10 seconds and then to relax for a count of 10 seconds, doing 25 repetitions in a row. Twenty-five contractions equal 1 set. Do the first set slowly, followed by a second set done rapidly. In order to gain the most benefit from this program, patients may need to continue this exercise indefinitely. If patients have not significantly improved after a regimented program of 4-6 months, they may need electrical stimulation.
Another alternate regimen is to suggest that the patient repeat a set of 5 exercises each time they go to the bathroom. Again, this ensures that the exercises are done many times during the day. If patients are unable to perform the exercise for the optimal 5-10 seconds, they may need to start at only 2-3 seconds of "holding" until they are able to do the exercise properly.
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
¡@
Initially, the interval goal is determined by the patient's current voiding habits and is not enforced at night. Whatever their voiding pattern is, their first voiding interval may be increased by 15- to 30-minute increments. As the bladder becomes accustomed to this delay in voiding, the interval between mandatory voids is progressively increased, with simultaneous distraction or relaxation techniques and dietary modification. The interval goal between each void usually is set between 2 and 3 hours and may be set further apart if desired.
Another method of bladder training is to keep the prearranged schedule and disregard the unscheduled voids. But patients need to continue to keep the prearranged voiding times. They need to continue this program for several months.
¡@
MEDICATION | ¡@ |
Stress incontinence results from a weak urinary sphincter. The internal sphincter contains high concentrations of alpha-adrenergic receptors. Activation of the alpha-receptors results in contraction of the internal urethral sphincter and increases the urethral resistance to urinary flow. Sympathomimetic drugs, estrogen, and tricyclic agents increase bladder outlet resistance to improve symptoms of stress urinary incontinence. Medical conditions that cause urge incontinence may be neurologic or nonneurologic. The urethra is normal but the bladder is hyperactive or overactive. Pharmacologic therapy for stress incontinence and an overactive bladder may be most effective when combined with a pelvic exercise regimen. The 3 main categories of drugs used to treat urge incontinence include anticholinergic drugs, antispasmodics, and tricyclic antidepressant agents.
All drugs with anticholinergic adverse effects are contraindicated if patients have documented narrow-angle glaucoma. Wide-angle glaucoma is not a contraindication to their use. Urinary retention, bowel obstruction, ulcerative colitis, myasthenia gravis, and severe heart diseases are contraindications for anticholinergic use. These agents may impair the patient's ability to perform hazardous activities, such as driving or operating heavy machinery, because of the potential for drowsiness. Anticholinergic drugs should not be taken in combination with alcohol, sedatives, or hypnotic drugs.
When a single drug treatment does not work, a combination therapy such as
Oxybutynin (Ditropan) and Imipramine (Tofranil) may be used. Although their
mechanism of action differs, Oxybutynin and Imipramine both work together to
improve urge incontinence. Oxybutynin causes direct smooth muscle relaxation of
the urinary bladder and also has local anesthetic properties. Imipramine has a
direct inhibitory and local anesthetic effect on the bladder smooth muscle, like
Oxybutynin; however, Imipramine also increases the bladder outlet resistance at
the level of the bladder neck. Thus, the combination of these drugs produces a
synergistic effect to relax the unstable bladder to hold in urine and prevent
urge incontinence. Potential anticholinergic adverse effects may be additive
because both drugs have similar adverse reactions.
¡@
Drug Category: Alpha-adrenergic drugs -- The bladder neck contains a high concentration of receptors that are sensitive to alpha-agonists. Alpha agonists increase bladder outlet resistance by contracting the bladder neck.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (Sudafed) -- Helps stress incontinence. The subjective improvement and cure rates are similar to that of phenylpropanolamine (recalled from US market). Stimulates vasoconstriction by directly activating alpha-adrenergic receptors. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | Nonextended release: 60 mg PO qid Extended release: 120 mg PO bid |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, severe anemia, postural hypertension or hypotension, closed-angle glaucoma, head trauma, cerebral hemorrhage |
Interactions | Propranolol, MAOIs, and sympathomimetic agents may increase toxicity of pseudoephedrine; methyldopa and reserpine may reduce effects of pseudoephedrine |
Pregnancy | C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established. |
Precautions | Caution in cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, prostatic hypertrophy, and increased intraocular pressure |
Drug Category: Estrogen -- Conjugated estrogen increases the tone of urethral muscle by up-regulating the alpha-adrenergic receptors in the surrounding area, and it enhances alpha-adrenergic contractile response to strengthen the pelvic muscles, which is important in urethral support (prevents urethral hypermobility). Mucosal turgor of periurethral tissue from proper nourishment enhances urethral mucosal coaptation. Result is an improved mucosal seal effect, which is important in urethral function (prevents intrinsic sphincter deficiency). Estrogen supplementation appears to be the most effective in postmenopausal women with mild-to-moderate incontinence. Both types of stress incontinence will benefit from estrogen fortification.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Conjugated estrogen (Premarin) --
Conjugated estrogen may be used as an adjunctive pharmacologic agent for
postmenopausal women with stress or mixed incontinence. Oral or vaginal form
of estrogen may be used. The usual oral dose of Premarin (conjugated
estrogen) is 0.3-1.25 mg taken qd in a cyclic regimen. When oral estrogens
are needed, prescribe Premarin 0.625 mg pills. To prevent overstimulation of
uterus, Premarin is taken once a day for 21 consecutive d, followed by 7 d
without the drug (eg, 3 wk on and 1 wk off). Regimen is repeated prn and
tapered off or discontinued at 3- to 6-mo intervals. Premarin vaginal cream is available in a package with a plastic applicator and a tube that contains 42.5 g of conjugated estrogens. Each g contains 0.625 mg of conjugated estrogens. When vaginal cream is used, 2-4 g (1/2-1 applicator full) of cream may be administered intravaginally qd in the usual cyclic regimen. Estrogen cream is readily absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes. When Premarin cream is used for treatment of atrophic vaginitis, the cream may be placed intravaginally or applied topically around the vaginal tissues. When estrogen is used long term, the addition of progestin therapy is recommended to prevent endometrial hyperplasia in women with an intact uterus. Progestin (eg, medroxyprogesterone 2.5-10 mg/d) is needed for 10-13 d to provide maximum maturation of endometrium and to eliminate any hyperplastic changes. Progestin may be administered continuously or intermittently. Pharmacologic therapy using estrogen derivatives result in few cures (0-14%) but may cause subjective improvement in 29-66% of women. Limited evidence suggests that oral or vaginal estrogen therapy may benefit some women with stress and mixed urinary incontinence. Other potential beneficial effects of estrogen use include decreased bone loss and resolution of hot flashes during menopause. Routinely prescribing conjugated estrogens to premenopausal women is not recommended. Use this medication in postmenopausal incontinent women who have had a hysterectomy. For postmenopausal women with an intact uterus, cautiously recommend a short-term low-dose of Premarin, with frequent monitoring. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 0.625 mg/d PO 0.625 mg/g of cream applied topically to vaginal area |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity; known or suspected pregnancy; breast cancer; undiagnosed abnormal genital bleeding; active thrombophlebitis; thromboembolic disorders; history of thrombophlebitis, thrombosis, or thromboembolic disorders associated with previous estrogen use (except when used in treatment of breast or prostatic malignancy) |
Interactions | May reduce hypoprothrombinemic effect of anticoagulants; coadministration of barbiturates, rifampin, and other agents that induce hepatic microsomal enzymes may reduce estrogen levels; pharmacologic and toxicologic effects of corticosteroids may occur as a result of estrogen-induced inactivation of hepatic P450 enzyme; loss of seizure control has been noted when administered concurrently with hydantoins |
Pregnancy | X - Contraindicated in pregnancy |
Precautions | Certain patients may develop undesirable manifestations of excessive estrogenic stimulation, eg, abnormal or excessive uterine bleeding or mastodynia; estrogens may cause some degree of fluid retention (exercise caution); prolonged unopposed estrogen therapy may increase risk of endometrial hyperplasia |
Drug Category: Anticholinergic drugs -- First-line medicinal therapy for women with urge incontinence. Effective in treating urge incontinence because they inhibit involuntary bladder contractions. Useful in treating urinary incontinence associated with urinary frequency, urgency, and nocturnal enuresis. All anticholinergic drugs have similar a performance profile and toxicity. Potential adverse effects of all anticholinergic agents include blurred vision, dry mouth, heart palpitations, drowsiness, and facial flushing. When anticholinergic drugs are used in excess, the bladder may go into acute urinary retention.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Propantheline bromide (Pro-Banthine) -- Typical prototype for all anticholinergic agents. Blocks action of acetylcholine at postganglionic parasympathetic receptor sites. In a medical study, propantheline bromide has been shown to decrease incidence of urge incontinence by 13-17% when 30 mg were used qid. When stronger doses were used, 60 mg qid, the cure rate was reported to be over 90%. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 15 mg PO tid/qid |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, ulcerative colitis, narrow-angle glaucoma, and obstructive disease of the GI or urinary tract |
Interactions | Effects decrease when administered concurrently with antacids; toxicity increases when administered concurrently with disopyramide, tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazines, corticosteroids, and bretylium |
Pregnancy | C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established. |
Precautions | In addition to urinary retention, potential adverse effects include visual blurring, dry mouth, nausea, constipation, heart palpitation, drowsiness, and mental confusion; caution in renal or hepatic disease |
Drug Name ¡@ |
Dicyclomine hydrochloride (Bentyl) -- Another anticholinergic agent with smooth muscle relaxant properties. Blocks the action of acetylcholine at parasympathetic sites in secretory glands, smooth muscle. In a medical study, subjective improvement was reported by 62% of the subjects while on dicyclomine hydrochloride 10 mg tid. The reported cure rate was 90%. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 10-20 mg PO tid |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, myasthenia gravis, narrow-angle glaucoma, breastfeeding |
Interactions | Effects are weakened when administered with anti-Parkinson drugs, haloperidol, and phenothiazines; toxicity of dicyclomine increases when administered concurrently with amantadine, antihistamines, type-I antiarrhythmics, phenothiazines, TCAs, or narcotic analgesics |
Pregnancy | B - Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks. |
Precautions | If an adequate response is not obtained within 3 wk or adverse effects are too severe, discontinue the drug; caution when administering to patients with hepatic or renal insufficiency, cardiovascular disease, urinary tract obstruction, ulcerative colitis, GI obstruction, hyperthyroidism, or hypertension |
Drug Name ¡@ |
Hyoscyamine sulfate (Levsin/SL, Levsin, Levsinex, Cystospaz-M, Levbid) -- Anticholinergic agents with antispasmodic properties used in urologic practice for the treatment of urge incontinence. Blocks action of acetylcholine at parasympathetic sites in smooth muscle, secretory glands, and the CNS, which in turn has antispasmodic effects. Hyoscyamine is absorbed well by the GI tract. Food does not affect absorption of this drug. Hyoscyamine sulfate is available in sublingual form (Levsin SL), conventional tablets (Levsin), extended-release capsules (Levsinex Timecaps, Cystospaz-M), and extended-release tablets (Levbid). |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 0.125 mg PO q4h; alternatively 0.375 mg PO bid; for severe symptoms 0.375 mg PO tid |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, obstructive uropathy, narrow-angle glaucoma, myasthenia gravis, obstructive GI tract disease |
Interactions | Effects decrease when used concurrently with antacids; toxicity increases when used concurrently with phenothiazines, amantadine, or haloperidol; MAOIs; TCAs |
Pregnancy | C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established. |
Precautions | Caution in older patients; some products contain sodium metabisulfite, which can cause allergic type reactions |
Drug Category: Antispasmodic drugs -- They relax the smooth muscles of the urinary bladder. By exerting a direct spasmolytic action on the smooth muscle of the bladder, these medications have been reported to increase the bladder capacity and effectively decrease or eliminate urge incontinence. The adverse effect profile of antispasmodic drugs is similar to that of anticholinergic agents. These drugs may impair the patient's ability to perform activities requiring mental alertness and physical coordination. Drinking alcohol and using sedatives in combination with these antispasmodic drugs is contraindicated.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Oxybutynin chloride (Ditropan IR,
Ditropan XL) -- Ditropan IR (immediate release) and Ditropan XL (extended
release) has both anticholinergic and direct smooth muscle relaxant effect
on the urinary bladder. In addition, it provides a local anesthetic effect
on the irritable bladder. Human detrusor has M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors. M3 receptor mediates contractile response of human detrusor. Oxybutynin has greater affinity for M3 receptor. Urodynamic studies have shown oxybutynin increases bladder size, decreases frequency of symptoms, and delays initial desire to void. Ditropan XL has an innovative drug delivery system - Oral osmotic delivery system(OROS). Ditropan XL tablet has a bilayer core that contains a drug layer and a "push layer" that contains osmotic components. Outer tablet is composed of a semipermeable membrane with a precision laser drilled hole that allows the drug to be released at a constant rate. When drug is ingested, aqueous environment in gastrointestinal tract causes water to enter tablet via semi-permeable membrane at constant rate. Introduction of water inside tablet liquifies drug and also causes push layer to swell osmotically. As the push layer swells, it forces the drug suspension out the hole at a constant rate over a 24-hour period. Ditropan XL achieves steady-state levels over a 24-hour period. Avoids "first pass metabolism" of liver and upper gastrointestinal tract to avoid cytochrome P450 enzymes. Has excellent efficacy with minimal adverse effects. Medical studies have shown that oxybutynin chloride reduces incontinence episodes by 83-90%. Total continence rate has been reported to be 41-50%. Mean reduction in urinary frequency was 23%. In clinical trials only 1% stopped taking Ditropan XL due to dry mouth and less than 1% stopped taking Ditropan XL due to CNS adverse effects. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | Ditropan IR 2.5 mg PO tid, titrate prn to 5 mg bid/tid/qid; alternatively Ditropan XL 5-15 mg PO qd |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, uncontrolled narrow-angle glaucoma, partial or complete GI obstruction, myasthenia gravis, ulcerative colitis, toxic megacolon |
Interactions | CNS effects may increase when administered concurrently with other CNS depressants |
Pregnancy | B - Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks. |
Precautions | Potential adverse effects include dry skin, blurred vision, confusion, drowsiness, nausea, constipation, and dry mouth; caution in urinary tract obstruction, reflux esophagitis, and heart disease |
Drug Category: OBJECT Trial -- Recently, Appell et al conducted an OBJECT trial (Overactive Bladder: Judging Effective Control and Treatment). This was a large double-blind, multicenter, prospective, randomized controlled study that compared the efficacy and tolerability of Ditropan XL (N=160) vs Detrol (N=170) in men and women with symptoms of overactive bladder. The study concluded that Ditropan XL 10 mg was statistically superior to Detrol 2 mg BID in terms of efficacy. However, both drugs had similar adverse effect profile.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Tolterodine L-Tartrate (Detrol and Detrol LA) -- Competitive muscarinic receptor antagonist for overactive bladder. However, it differs from other anticholinergic types in that it has selectivity for urinary bladder over salivary glands. Exhibits a high specificity for muscarinic receptors, has minimal activity or affinity for other neurotransmitter receptors and other potential targets such as calcium channels. In clinical studies, the mean decrease in urge incontinence episodes was 50% and the mean decrease in urinary frequency was 17%. The mean decrease in urge incontinence episodes per week was 53% for Detrol LA 4 mg qd. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | Detrol 2 mg PO bid Detrol LA 4 mg PO qd |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, urinary retention, gastric retention, uncontrolled narrow-angle glaucoma |
Interactions | Do not administer doses of tolterodine >1 mg bid to patients being treated with macrolide antibiotics or antifungal agents |
Pregnancy | C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established. |
Precautions | Potential adverse effects include dry mouth, headache, drowsiness, upset stomach; do not administer doses >1 mg bid to patients with significantly reduced hepatic function; caution in renal impairment |
Drug Category: Tricyclic antidepressant drugs -- Historically, these drugs were used to treat major depression; however, they have an additional use, treatment of bladder dysfunction. They function to increase norepinephrine and serotonin levels. In addition, they exhibit an anticholinergic and direct muscle relaxant effect on the urinary bladder.
Drug Name ¡@ |
Imipramine hydrochloride (Tofranil) -- Typical tricyclic antidepressant. Facilitates urine storage by decreasing bladder contractility and increasing outlet resistance. Has alpha-adrenergic effect on the bladder neck and antispasmodic effect on detrusor muscle. Imipramine hydrochloride has local anesthetic effect on bladder mucosa. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 10-50 mg PO qd/tid, range is 25-100 mg qd |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity; narrow-angle glaucoma; in acute recovery phase following myocardial infarction; avoid in patients taking MAOIs or fluoxetine or patients who took them in previous 2 wk |
Interactions | Increases toxicity of sympathomimetic agents, such as isoproterenol and epinephrine, by potentiating effects and inhibiting antihypertensive effects of clonidine |
Pregnancy | D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions | May impair mental or physical abilities
required for performance of potentially hazardous tasks; caution in
cardiovascular disease, conduction disturbances, seizure disorders, urinary
retention, hyperthyroidism, or receiving thyroid replacement Clinical reports of fetal malformation have been reported with use of imipramine, but a causal relationship has not been established; nursing mothers should not take this medication because it may be excreted via the mother's milk and be harmful to the infant |
Drug Name ¡@ |
Amitriptyline hydrochloride (Elavil) -- Another TCA with sedative properties. Increases the circulating levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by blocking their reuptake at nerve endings and is ineffective for use in urge incontinence. However, it is extremely effective in decreasing symptoms of urinary frequency in women with pelvic floor muscle dysfunction. Restores serotonin levels and helps break the cycle of pelvic floor muscle spasms. Well-tolerated and effective in majority of women with urinary frequency. |
---|---|
Adult Dose | 10 mg/d PO; titrate prn by 10 mg/wk until maximum dose of 150 mg is reached, urinary symptoms disappear, or adverse effects become intolerable |
Pediatric Dose | Not established |
Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity; patient is taking or has taken MAOIs in past 14 d; history of seizure; cardiac arrhythmias; glaucoma |
Interactions | Phenobarbital may decrease effects; coadministration with CYP2D6 enzyme system inhibitors (eg, cimetidine, quinidine) may increase amitriptyline levels; amitriptyline inhibits hypotensive effects of guanethidine; may interact with thyroid medications, alcohol, CNS depressants, barbiturates, and disulfiram |
Pregnancy | D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions | Caution in cardiac conduction disturbances and history of hyperthyroidism, renal or hepatic impairment; avoid using in the elderly |
FOLLOW-UP | Section 8 of 11 |
Further Outpatient Care:
¡@
Complications:
¡@
Prognosis:
¡@
MISCELLANEOUS | ¡@ |
Medical/Legal Pitfalls:
¡@
BIBLIOGRAPHY | ¡@ |