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INTRODUCTION |
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Background: Beta thalassemia
syndromes are a group of hereditary disorders characterized by a genetic
deficiency in the synthesis of beta-globin chains. In the homozygous state, beta
thalassemia (ie, thalassemia major) causes severe transfusion-dependent anemia.
In the heterozygous state, the beta thalassemia trait (ie, thalassemia minor)
causes mild-to-moderate microcytic anemia. In addition, hemoglobin (Hb) E, a
common Hb variant found in Southeast Asia, is associated with a beta thalassemia
phenotype, and this variant is included in the beta thalassemia category of
diseases.
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Pathophysiology: Mutations in globin genes cause
thalassemias. Alpha thalassemia affects the alpha-globin gene(s). Beta
thalassemia affects one or both of the beta-globin genes. These mutations result
in the impaired synthesis of the beta globin protein portion, a component of Hb,
thus causing anemia.
In beta thalassemia minor (ie, beta thalassemia trait or heterozygous
carrier-type), one of the beta-globin genes is defective. The defect can be a
complete absence of the beta-globin protein (ie, beta-zero thalassemia) or a
reduced synthesis of the beta-globin protein (ie, beta-plus thalassemia) (see
Image 1).
The genetic defect usually is a missense or nonsense mutation in the beta-globin
gene, although occasional defects due to gene deletions of the beta-globin gene
and surrounding regions also have been reported.
In beta thalassemia major (ie, homozygous beta thalassemia), the production
of beta-globin chains is severely impaired, because both beta-globin genes are
mutated. The severe imbalance of globin chain synthesis (alpha >> beta) results
in ineffective erythropoiesis and severe microcytic hypochromic anemia (see
Image 2). The
excess unpaired alpha-globin chains aggregate to form precipitates that damage
red cell membranes, resulting in intravascular hemolysis. Premature destruction
of erythroid precursors results in intramedullary death and ineffective
erythropoiesis. The profound anemia typically is associated with erythroid
hyperplasia and extramedullary hematopoiesis.
Frequency:
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- In the US: The frequency of disease varies widely,
depending on the ethnic population. Beta thalassemia is reported most commonly
in Mediterranean, African, and Southeast Asian populations.
- Internationally: The disease is found most commonly in
the Mediterranean region, Africa, and Southeast Asia, presumably as an
adaptive association to endemic malaria. The incidence may be as high as 10%
in these areas.
Mortality/Morbidity: The major causes of morbidity and
mortality are anemia and iron overload.
- The severe anemia resulting from this disease, if untreated, can result in
high-output cardiac failure; the intramedullary erythroid expansion may result
in associated skeletal changes such as cortical bone thinning. The long-term
increase in red-cell turnover causes hyperbilirubinemia and bilirubin-containing
gallstones.
- Increased iron deposition resulting from multiple life-long transfusions
and enhanced iron absorption results in secondary iron overload. This overload
causes clinical problems similar to those observed with primary
hemachromatosis (eg, endocrine dysfunction, liver dysfunction, cardiac
dysfunction).
Race: Beta thalassemia genes are reported throughout the
world, although more frequently in Mediterranean, African, and Southeast Asian
populations. Patients of Mediterranean extraction are more likely to be anemic
with thalassemia trait than Africans because they have beta-zero thalassemia
rather than beta-plus thalassemia.
- The genetic defect in Mediterranean populations is caused most commonly by
(1) a mutation creating an abnormal splicing site or (2) a mutation creating a
premature translation termination codon.
- Southeast Asian populations also have a significant prevalence of Hb E and
alpha thalassemia.
- African populations more commonly have genetic defects leading to alpha
thalassemia.
Sex: This genetic disorder is caused by abnormalities in the
beta-globin gene, located on chromosome 11. It is not a sex-linked genetic
trait.
Age: The manifestations of the disease may not be apparent
until a complete switch from fetal to adult Hb synthesis occurs. This switch
typically is completed by the sixth month after birth.
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CLINICAL |
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History: Thalassemia minor usually
presents as an asymptomatic mild microcytic anemia and is detected through
routine blood tests. Thalassemia major is a severe anemia that presents during
the first few months after birth.
- Thalassemia minor (beta thalassemia trait) usually is asymptomatic, and it
typically is identified during routine blood count evaluation.
- Thalassemia major (homozygous beta thalassemia) is detected during the
first few months of life, when the patient's level of fetal Hb decreases.
Physical:
- Patients with the beta thalassemia trait generally have no unusual
physical findings.
- The physical findings are related to severe anemia, ineffective
erythropoiesis, extramedullary hematopoiesis, and iron overload resulting
from transfusion and increased iron absorption.
- Skin may show pallor from anemia and jaundice from hyperbilirubinemia.
- The skull and other bones may be deformed secondary to erythroid
hyperplasia with intramedullary expansion and cortical bone thinning.
- Heart examination may reveal findings of cardiac failure and arrhythmia,
related to either severe anemia or iron overload.
- Abdominal examination may reveal changes in the liver, gall bladder, and
spleen. Hepatomegaly related to significant extramedullary hematopoiesis
typically is observed. Patients who have received blood transfusions may
have hepatomegaly or chronic hepatitis due to iron overload;
transfusion-associated viral hepatitis resulting in cirrhosis or portal
hypertension also may be seen. The gall bladder may contain bilirubin stones
formed as a result of the patient's life-long hemolytic state. Splenomegaly
typically is observed as part of the extramedullary hematopoiesis or as a
hypertrophic response related to the extravascular hemolysis.
- Extremities may demonstrate skin ulceration.
- Iron overload also may cause endocrine dysfunction, especially affecting
the pancreas, testes, and thyroid.
Causes: Beta thalassemia is caused by a genetic mutation in
the beta-globin gene; however, many additional factors influence the clinical
manifestations of disease. That is, the same mutations may have different
clinical manifestations in different patients. The following factors are known
to influence the clinical phenotype:
- Intracellular fetal Hb concentrations
- The level of expression of fetal Hb (ie, the expression level of the
gamma-globin gene) determines, in part, the severity of the disease.
- Patients with high fetal Hb have milder disease.
- Co-inheritance of alpha thalassemia
- Patients with co-inheritance of alpha thalassemia have a milder clinical
course because they have a less severe alpha-beta chain imbalance.
- The coexistence of sickle cell trait and beta thalassemia is a major and
symptomatic hemoglobinopathy with most of the symptoms and complications of
sickle cell disease. Unlike sickle cell trait, in which most Hb-on-Hb
electrophoresis is Hb A (AS), S is the dominant Hb (SA) and usually
constitutes about 60% of the circulating Hb.
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DIFFERENTIALS |
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Lead Nephropathy
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Other Problems to be Considered:
Additional causes of microcytic anemia:
Lead poisoning
Sideroblastic anemia
Anemia of chronic disease
Unstable Hb levels
Red cell membrane disorders (some types)
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WORKUP |
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Lab Studies:
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- The diagnosis of beta thalassemia minor usually is suggested by the
presence of an isolated, mild microcytic anemia, target cells on the
peripheral blood smear, and a normal red blood cell count. An elevation of Hb
A2 (2 alpha-globin chains complexed with 2 delta-globin chains) demonstrated
by electrophoresis or column chromatography confirms the diagnosis of beta
thalassemia trait. The Hb A2 level in these patients usually is approximately
4-6%. In rare cases of concurrent severe iron deficiency, the increased Hb A2
level may not be observed, although it becomes evident with iron repletion.
The increased Hb A2 level also is not observed in patients with the rare
delta-beta thalassemia trait.
- An elevated Hb F level is not specific to patients with the beta
thalassemia trait.
- Free erythrocyte porphyrin (FEP) tests may be useful in situations in
which the diagnosis of beta thalassemia minor is unclear. FEP level is normal
in patients with the beta thalassemia trait, but it is elevated in patients
with iron deficiency or lead poisoning.
- Alpha thalassemia is characterized by genetic defects in the alpha-globin
gene, and this variant has features similar to beta thalassemia. Patients with
this disorder have normal Hb A2 levels. Establishing the diagnosis of the
alpha thalassemia trait requires measuring either the alpha-beta chain
synthesis ratio or performing genetic tests of the alpha-globin cluster (by
Southern blot or polymerase chain reaction tests ).
- Iron studies (iron, transferrin, ferritin) are useful in excluding iron
deficiency and the anemia of chronic disorders as the cause of the patient's
anemia.
- Patients may require a bone marrow examination to exclude certain other
causes of microcytic anemia. Physicians must perform an iron stain (Prussian
blue stain) to diagnose sideroblastic anemia (ringed sideroblasts).
- The Mentzer index is defined as mean corpuscular volume per red cell
count. An index of less than 13 suggests that the patient has the thalassemia
trait, and an index of more than 13 suggests that the patient has iron
deficiency.
Imaging Studies:
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- The skeletal abnormalities observed in patients with thalassemia major
include an expanded bone marrow space, resulting in the thinning of the bone
cortex. These changes are particularly dramatic in the skull, which may show
the characteristic hair-on-end appearance. Bone changes also can be observed
in the long bones, vertebrae, and pelvis.
- The liver and biliary tract of patients with thalassemia major may show
evidence of extramedullary hematopoiesis and damage secondary to iron overload
resulting from multiple transfusion therapy. Transfusion also may result in
infection with the hepatitis virus, which leads to cirrhosis and portal
hypertension. Gallbladder images may show the presence of bilirubin stones.
- The heart is a major organ that is affected by iron overload and anemia.
Cardiac dysfunction in patients with thalassemia major includes conduction
system defects, decreased myocardial function, and fibrosis. Some patients
also develop pericarditis.
Other Tests:
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Procedures:
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- Physicians often use splenectomy to decrease transfusion requirements.
Because postsplenectomy sepsis is possible, defer this procedure until the
patient is older than 6-7 years. In addition, to minimize the risk of
postsplenectomy sepsis, vaccinate the patient against Pneumococcus
species, Meningococcus species, and Haemophilus influenzae.
Also, administer penicillin prophylaxis to children after splenectomy.
- Patients with thalassemia minor may have bilirubin stones in their gall
bladder and, if symptomatic, may require treatment. Perform a cholecystectomy
using a laparoscope or at the time of the splenectomy.
Histologic Findings: The peripheral blood smear shows
microcytic hypochromic red cells with target cells and anisopoikilocytosis.
|
TREATMENT |
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Medical Care:
Patients with thalassemia minor usually do not require any
specific treatment. Treatment for patients with thalassemia major includes
chronic transfusion therapy, iron chelation, splenectomy, and allogeneic
hematopoietic transplantation.
- Patients in the heterozygous state usually do not require treatment.
- Inform patients that their condition is hereditary and that physicians
sometimes mistake the disorder for iron deficiency.
- Some pregnant patients with the beta thalassemia trait may develop
concurrent iron deficiency and severe anemia; they may require transfusional
support if not responsive to iron repletion modalities.
- The goal of long-term hypertransfusional support is to maintain the
patient's Hb at 9-10 g/dL, thus improving the patient's sense of well-being
while simultaneously suppressing enhanced erythropoiesis. This strategy not
only treats the anemia, but also suppresses endogenous erythropoiesis so
that extramedullary hematopoiesis and skeletal changes are suppressed.
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- Patients receiving transfusion therapy also require iron chelation with
desferrioxamine.
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- Blood banking considerations for these patients include completely
typing their erythrocytes prior to the first transfusion. This procedure
helps future crossmatching processes.
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- Allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation may be curative in some
patients with thalassemia major. An Italian group led by Lucarelli has the
most experience with this procedure (Lucarelli et al, 1993). This group’s
research documents a 90% long-term survival rate in patients with favorable
characteristics (young age, HLA match, no organ dysfunction).
Surgical Care: Patients with thalassemia minor rarely
require splenectomy, although the development of bilirubin stones frequently
leads to cholecystectomy.
Diet:
- Drinking tea may help to reduce iron absorption through the intestinal
tract.
- Vitamin C may improve iron excretion in patients receiving iron chelation.
Anecdotal reports suggest that large doses of vitamin C can cause fatal
arrhythmias when administered without concomitant infusion of deferoxamine.
Activity: Activity may be limited secondary to severe
anemia.
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MEDICATION |
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Medical therapy for beta thalassemia primarily
involves iron chelation. Deferoxamine is the intravenously administered
chelation agent currently approved for use in the United States. Deferiprone is
an oral chelation agent, recently approved for use in Europe. While the results
of studies on this oral agent are encouraging, complications of hepatic fibrosis
may develop (Olivieri et al, 1998). Deferiprone currently is not approved for
use in the United States.
Additional treatments under development are experimental protocols to
manipulate globin gene expression using gene therapy or using drugs that
activate gamma-globin genes. Since fetal globin gene expression is associated
with a milder phenotype, approaches to enhance intracellular Hb F levels (by
activating gamma-globin gene expression) are currently under investigation. The
2 most widely studied drugs in this area are butyrates and hydroxyurea.
Current obstacles in gene therapy include inability to express high levels of
the beta-globin gene in erythroid cells and inability to transduce hematopoietic
pluripotent stem cells at high efficiency.
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Drug Category: Chelating agents -- Bind iron
and promote excretion.
Drug Name
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Deferoxamine (Desferal) -- Usually
administered as slow subcutaneous infusion through portable pump. Freely
soluble in water. Approximately 8 mg of iron bound by 100 mg of deferoxamine.
Agent is excreted in bile and urine, resulting in red discoloration. Readily
chelates iron from ferritin and hemosiderin but not from transferrin. Most
effective when administered as continuous infusion. |
Adult Dose |
20-40 mg/kg/d SC infused over 8-12 h;
may be administered IV/IM if necessary |
Pediatric Dose |
Administer as in adults |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity; patients
who do not have acute iron poisoning; severe renal disease and anuria
(consider dose reduction after the loading dose) |
Interactions |
Coadministration of vitamin C improves
iron chelation (vitamin C is contraindicated in patients with heart failure
because it may exacerbate cardiac dysfunction) |
Pregnancy |
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has
not been established. |
Precautions |
Compliance may be poor, especially in
adolescent children; follow efficacy by monitoring ferritin levels;
tachycardia, hypotension, and shock may occur in patients receiving
long-term therapy, and could add to the cardiovascular collapse resulting
from iron toxicity; GI adverse effects include abdominal discomfort, nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea, which may add to the symptoms of acute iron
toxicity; flushing and fever are reported |
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FOLLOW-UP |
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Further Outpatient Care:
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In/Out Patient Meds:
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- Administer deferoxamine daily as described under medication.
- Transfuse red blood cells to maintain the Hb concentration at 9-10 g/dL.
Deterrence/Prevention:
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- Prenatal diagnosis is possible by analyzing DNA obtained via chorionic
villi sampling at 8-10 weeks of gestation or by amniocentesis at 14-20 weeks
of gestation. Since the genetic defects are quite variable, family genotyping
usually must be completed for diagnostic linkage (segregation) analysis. With
the anticipated availability of large-scale mutation screening by DNA chip
technology, extensive pedigree analyses may be obviated. Physicians can
perform fetal blood sampling for Hb chain synthesis at 18-22 weeks of
gestation, but this procedure is not as reliable as DNA analysis sampling
methods.
- Genetic therapy strategies are currently in the early stages of
development.
Complications:
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- Extramedullary hematopoiesis
- Asplenia secondary to splenectomy
- Medical complications from long-term transfusional therapy - Iron overload
or transfusion-associated infections (eg, hepatitis)
- Increased risk for infections resulting from asplenia (eg, encapsulated
organisms such as Pneumococcus species) or from iron overload (eg,
yersinia)
- Cholelithiasis (eg, bilirubin stones)
Prognosis:
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- Individuals with thalassemia minor (thalassemia trait) usually have
asymptomatic mild anemia. This state does not result in mortality or
significant morbidity.
- The prognosis of patients with thalassemia major is highly dependent on
the patient's adherence to long-term treatment programs, namely the
hypertransfusion program and life-long iron chelation. Allogeneic bone marrow
transplantation may be curative.
Patient Education:
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- Educate patients with thalassemia minor about the genetic (hereditary)
nature of their disease, and inform them that their immediate family members (ie,
parents, siblings, children) may be affected. The presence of thalassemia
major in both parents implies that children will likely have a form of the
disease. (The presence of compound heterozygosity in the parents makes
accurate phenotypic predictions for children incomplete).
- Inform patients with thalassemia minor that they do not have iron
deficiency and that iron supplementation will not improve their anemia.
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MISCELLANEOUS |
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Medical/Legal Pitfalls:
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- Thalassemia is an iron-overloading disorder. Therapy with iron is
contraindicated in this disease. The presence of microcytic anemia is not
always due to iron deficiency.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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- Forget BG: Thalassemia Syndromes. In: Hematology: Basic Principles and
Practice. 2000 485-509.
- Fucharoen S, Winichagoon P: Clinical and hematologic aspects of hemoglobin
E beta-thalassemia. Current Opinion in Hematology 2000; 7: 106-112[Medline].
- Hoffbrand AV, AL-Refaie F, Davis B: Long-term trial of deferiprone in 51
transfusion-dependent iron overloaded patients. Blood 1998; 91: 295-300[Medline].
- Ikuta T, Atweh G, Boosalis V: Cellular and molecular effects of a pulse
butyrate regimen and new inducers of globin gene expression and hematopoiesis.
Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 850: 87-99[Medline].
- Koshy M, Dorn L, Bressler L: 2-deoxy 5-azacytidine and fetal hemoglobin
induction in sickle cell anemia. Blood 2000; 96: 2379-2384[Medline].
- Lucarelli G, Galimberti M, Polchi P: Marrow transplantation in patients
with thalassemia responsive to iron chelation therapy. N Engl J Med 1993 Sep
16; 329(12): 840-4[Medline][Full
Text].
- May C, Rivella S, Callegari J: Therapeutic haemoglobin synthesis in beta-thalassaemic
mice expressing lentivirus-encoded human beta-globin. Nature 2000; 406: 82-86[Medline].
- Olivieri NF, Brittenham GM, McLaren CE: Long-Term Safety and Effectiveness
of Iron-Chelation Therapy with Deferiprone for Thalassemia Major. New Engl J
Med 1998; 339: 417-23[Medline][Full
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