Thalassemia, Beta

INTRODUCTION ¡@

Background: Beta thalassemia syndromes are a group of hereditary disorders characterized by a genetic deficiency in the synthesis of beta-globin chains. In the homozygous state, beta thalassemia (ie, thalassemia major) causes severe transfusion-dependent anemia. In the heterozygous state, the beta thalassemia trait (ie, thalassemia minor) causes mild-to-moderate microcytic anemia. In addition, hemoglobin (Hb) E, a common Hb variant found in Southeast Asia, is associated with a beta thalassemia phenotype, and this variant is included in the beta thalassemia category of diseases.

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Pathophysiology: Mutations in globin genes cause thalassemias. Alpha thalassemia affects the alpha-globin gene(s). Beta thalassemia affects one or both of the beta-globin genes. These mutations result in the impaired synthesis of the beta globin protein portion, a component of Hb, thus causing anemia.

In beta thalassemia minor (ie, beta thalassemia trait or heterozygous carrier-type), one of the beta-globin genes is defective. The defect can be a complete absence of the beta-globin protein (ie, beta-zero thalassemia) or a reduced synthesis of the beta-globin protein (ie, beta-plus thalassemia) (see Image 1). The genetic defect usually is a missense or nonsense mutation in the beta-globin gene, although occasional defects due to gene deletions of the beta-globin gene and surrounding regions also have been reported.

In beta thalassemia major (ie, homozygous beta thalassemia), the production of beta-globin chains is severely impaired, because both beta-globin genes are mutated. The severe imbalance of globin chain synthesis (alpha >> beta) results in ineffective erythropoiesis and severe microcytic hypochromic anemia (see Image 2). The excess unpaired alpha-globin chains aggregate to form precipitates that damage red cell membranes, resulting in intravascular hemolysis. Premature destruction of erythroid precursors results in intramedullary death and ineffective erythropoiesis. The profound anemia typically is associated with erythroid hyperplasia and extramedullary hematopoiesis.

Frequency:
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Mortality/Morbidity: The major causes of morbidity and mortality are anemia and iron overload.

Race: Beta thalassemia genes are reported throughout the world, although more frequently in Mediterranean, African, and Southeast Asian populations. Patients of Mediterranean extraction are more likely to be anemic with thalassemia trait than Africans because they have beta-zero thalassemia rather than beta-plus thalassemia.

Sex: This genetic disorder is caused by abnormalities in the beta-globin gene, located on chromosome 11. It is not a sex-linked genetic trait.

Age: The manifestations of the disease may not be apparent until a complete switch from fetal to adult Hb synthesis occurs. This switch typically is completed by the sixth month after birth.

CLINICAL ¡@

History: Thalassemia minor usually presents as an asymptomatic mild microcytic anemia and is detected through routine blood tests. Thalassemia major is a severe anemia that presents during the first few months after birth.

Physical:

Causes: Beta thalassemia is caused by a genetic mutation in the beta-globin gene; however, many additional factors influence the clinical manifestations of disease. That is, the same mutations may have different clinical manifestations in different patients. The following factors are known to influence the clinical phenotype:

DIFFERENTIALS ¡@

Lead Nephropathy
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Other Problems to be Considered:

Additional causes of microcytic anemia:
Lead poisoning
Sideroblastic anemia
Anemia of chronic disease
Unstable Hb levels
Red cell membrane disorders (some types)

WORKUP ¡@

Lab Studies:
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Imaging Studies:
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Other Tests:
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Procedures:
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Histologic Findings: The peripheral blood smear shows microcytic hypochromic red cells with target cells and anisopoikilocytosis.

TREATMENT ¡@

Medical Care: Patients with thalassemia minor usually do not require any specific treatment. Treatment for patients with thalassemia major includes chronic transfusion therapy, iron chelation, splenectomy, and allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation.

Surgical Care: Patients with thalassemia minor rarely require splenectomy, although the development of bilirubin stones frequently leads to cholecystectomy.

Diet:

Activity: Activity may be limited secondary to severe anemia.

MEDICATION ¡@

Medical therapy for beta thalassemia primarily involves iron chelation. Deferoxamine is the intravenously administered chelation agent currently approved for use in the United States. Deferiprone is an oral chelation agent, recently approved for use in Europe. While the results of studies on this oral agent are encouraging, complications of hepatic fibrosis may develop (Olivieri et al, 1998). Deferiprone currently is not approved for use in the United States.

Additional treatments under development are experimental protocols to manipulate globin gene expression using gene therapy or using drugs that activate gamma-globin genes. Since fetal globin gene expression is associated with a milder phenotype, approaches to enhance intracellular Hb F levels (by activating gamma-globin gene expression) are currently under investigation. The 2 most widely studied drugs in this area are butyrates and hydroxyurea.

Current obstacles in gene therapy include inability to express high levels of the beta-globin gene in erythroid cells and inability to transduce hematopoietic pluripotent stem cells at high efficiency.
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Drug Category: Chelating agents -- Bind iron and promote excretion.

Drug Name
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Deferoxamine (Desferal) -- Usually administered as slow subcutaneous infusion through portable pump. Freely soluble in water. Approximately 8 mg of iron bound by 100 mg of deferoxamine. Agent is excreted in bile and urine, resulting in red discoloration. Readily chelates iron from ferritin and hemosiderin but not from transferrin. Most effective when administered as continuous infusion.
Adult Dose 20-40 mg/kg/d SC infused over 8-12 h; may be administered IV/IM if necessary
Pediatric Dose Administer as in adults
Contraindications Documented hypersensitivity; patients who do not have acute iron poisoning; severe renal disease and anuria (consider dose reduction after the loading dose)
Interactions Coadministration of vitamin C improves iron chelation (vitamin C is contraindicated in patients with heart failure because it may exacerbate cardiac dysfunction)
Pregnancy C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.
Precautions Compliance may be poor, especially in adolescent children; follow efficacy by monitoring ferritin levels; tachycardia, hypotension, and shock may occur in patients receiving long-term therapy, and could add to the cardiovascular collapse resulting from iron toxicity; GI adverse effects include abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, which may add to the symptoms of acute iron toxicity; flushing and fever are reported
FOLLOW-UP ¡@

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Patient Education:
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MISCELLANEOUS ¡@

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Caption: Picture 1. Peripheral smear in beta-zero thalassemia minor showing microcytes (M), target cells (T), and poikilocytes.
Click to see larger picture
Picture Type: Photo
Caption: Picture 2. Peripheral smear from a patient with beta-zero thalassemia major showing more marked microcytosis (M) and anisopoikilocytosis (P) than in thalassemia minor. Target cells (T) and hypochromia are prominent.
Click to see larger picture
Picture Type: Photo
BIBLIOGRAPHY ¡@