|
INTRODUCTION |
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Background: The 3 major types
of ovarian tumors are epithelial, sex cord, and germ cell. Epithelial cell
tumors represent the majority of all ovarian neoplasms (82%). Conversely, germ
cell tumors (GCTs) are rare, comprising approximately 20% of all ovarian tumors,
both benign and malignant. Approximately 3-5% of ovarian GCTs are malignant. The
most commonly occurring GCT is the dysgerminoma, which accounts for only 1-5% of
all ovarian cancers.
Although rare, dysgerminomas are important beyond mere incidence because they
affect women of reproductive age (ie, <30 y). In fact, dysgerminomas make up two
thirds of all malignant ovarian neoplasms in women younger than 20 years.
Moreover, once diagnosed, dysgerminomas respond highly to the prescribed
treatments, rescuing patients from infertility and early mortality.
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Pathophysiology: Typically, germ cells are encapsulated at
birth within the primordial follicle. Should they somehow escape encapsulation,
cell death usually occurs. Should the germ cells survive, rapid growth ensues
because no cellular contexts exist that can provide normal contact inhibition,
hence GCT formation. All dysgerminomas are considered malignant, but only one
third of dysgerminomas behave aggressively. The exact etiology of dysgerminomas
has not been determined.
Frequency:
- In the US: The incidence of dysgerminomas has remained
unchanged over the last 30 years.
The frequencies of the most common malignant ovarian neoplasms in women of
reproductive age are as follows: epithelial (42%), dysgerminoma and other germ
cell tumors [GCT] (30%), metastatic Krukenberg (14%), and sex cord stromal (Sertoli-Leydig
cell tumors)[SLCT] (13%).
- Internationally: No data are available.
Mortality/Morbidity: The 5-year survival rate is 96% if the
tumor is confined to the ovary and 63% if extension occurs beyond the ovaries.
Pregnancy does not alter the prognosis of most ovarian malignancies, but
complications such as torsion and rupture may increase the incidence of
spontaneous abortion or preterm delivery.
Race: No racial predilection exists for ovarian germ tumors.
Sex: These tumors mostly occur in women, although the
disease also occurs in pseudohermaphrodites and patients with gonadal dysgenesis
(see
Medical/Legal Pitfalls). Testicular seminomas are the histologic
counterparts to dysgerminomas in males.
Age: Although most ovarian cancers occur during the
menopausal and perimenopausal years (ie, 50-59 y), dysgerminomas tend to
frequent the pediatric population. Dysgerminomas are observed most commonly in
younger women. Seventy-five percent of dysgerminomas occur in patients in their
20s and 30s, with the mean age being 22 years.
|
CLINICAL |
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History: No specific symptoms are
diagnostic of dysgerminoma tumors. Many of the presenting symptoms are universal
for any adnexal/ovarian mass.
- Most common presenting symptoms
- Vague abdominal complaints (eg, dyspepsia, digestive disturbances) are
less common symptoms.
- These tumors usually present as a unilateral mass and can occur during
pregnancy.
Physical: The physical examination should include a thorough
abdominal and pelvic examination on a gynecology table with stirrups. The
examiner also must perform a careful rectovaginal examination because some
enlarged adnexal masses can be appreciated from this approach.
Causes: The exact etiology for this tumor type has not been
elucidated.
|
DIFFERENTIALS |
¡@ |
Ectopic Pregnancy
Other Problems to be Considered:
Gastrointestinal
Colorectal cancer
Bowel/omental adhesions
Diverticula
Fecal impaction
Low-lying cecum
Genitourinary
Pelvic abscess
Uterine fibroids
Torsed ovary
Hydrosalpinx (salpingitis isthmic nodosum)
Retroperitoneal tumor
Bladder distention
Pelvic kidney
Urachal cyst
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|
WORKUP |
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Lab Studies:
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- Regardless of the clinical environment, obtain a urine pregnancy test.
This test should be mandatory in any woman of reproductive age who presents
with abdominopelvic symptoms.
- Document a guaiac test during the physical examination.
- Since dysgerminoma tumors affect women of a reproductive and sexually
active age, cultures for gonorrhea and chlamydia and a wet mount are indicated
at the time of speculum examination, especially if patients experience
abdominopelvic pain. In this way, sexually transmissible diseases may be
screened for and treated before surgery.
- The standard workup for suspected GCTs requires alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
and beta human chorionic gonadotropin (bHCG) levels, since these agents have
endocrine activity. Dysgerminomas (a germ cell subtype) are an exception to
this rule. The absence of an elevated AFP or bHCG does not exclude the
diagnosis of dysgerminomas because they rarely produce hormones. In extremely
rare cases, dysgerminomas can become infiltrated with syncytiotrophoblastic
giant cells, which produce human chorionic gonadotropin. Regardless, if the
differential diagnosis includes dysgerminoma, AFP and bHCG levels are highly
recommended.
- Useful tumor markers for dysgerminomas
- bHCG
- AFP
- Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
- Cancer antigen 125 (CA125)
- These markers also can be used for postoperative follow-up care or for
tracking the success of adjuvant therapy.
Imaging Studies:
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- Imaging should never replace a careful history and physical examination in
evaluating a patient with an ovarian mass. The initial approach should be an
attempt to determine the nature and extent of the mass. Transvaginal
ultrasound is a good preliminary imaging modality to determine if the mass is
ovarian and, more importantly, if it has any malignant features (eg, thickened
septations, solid and cystic components). Free abdominal fluid and bilateral
masses heighten the suspicion of malignancy.
- Secondary imaging studies are used to rule out metastasis.
- Chest x-rays are performed to rule out pulmonary spread.
- Depending on the age of the patient, a preoperative mammogram is suggested
to rule out primary metastasis if no study was performed 6-12 months before
surgery.
- Body imaging with CT scanning and MRI can be of value in patients with GI
or genitourinary signs of obstruction. In these cases, additional studies also
include the following:
- Barium enema
- Upper GI series
- Colonoscopy
- Intravenous pyelography (IVP)
- Bedside ultrasonography concomitant with the physical examination,
although helpful, is not indicated as a routine screening test.
Procedures:
¡@
- Dysgerminomas, like all ovarian cancers, can be staged only surgically.
Since 5% of all Ia tumors can have occult microscopic disease on the
contralateral ovary, performing a biopsy of the other ovary is recommended
highly, especially if the ovary is enlarged or appears abnormal.
Histologic Findings: Grossly, dysgerminomas have a solid
texture, with a tan, fleshlike appearance. Microscopically, dysgerminoma cells
are round and ovoid and contain an abundance of clear cytoplasm secondary to
glycogen buildup. The nuclei are irregularly shaped and contain more than 1
prominent nucleoli. These cells tend to coalesce, forming cords and sheets that
are identified easily through low-power magnification. Granulocytic and
lymphocytic infiltration within the intervening fibrous stroma also can be
appreciated. Interestingly, cystic teratomas occasionally have small nests of
dysgerminomatous tissue and vice versa.
Staging: International Federation of Gynecology and
Obstetrics (FIGO) staging
- Stage I - Limited to ovaries
- Ia - Limited to 1 ovary
- Ib - Limited to both ovaries
- Ic - Ascites with malignant cells on peritoneal washings or extension
beyond the capsule in either Ia or Ib
- Stage II - Pelvic extension
- IIa - Involvement of uterus or fallopian tubes
- IIb - Extension to the bladder or rectum
- IIc - Stage IIa or IIb but with positive peritoneal washings
- Stage III - Peritoneal implants outside of pelvis
- IIIa - Microscopic seeding of abdominal surfaces
- IIIb - Abdominal peritoneal implants smaller than 2 cm
- IIIc - Abdominal implants larger than 2 cm or positive lymph nodes
- Stage IV - Distant metastases
- Pleural effusions - Must confirm with positive cytology to be deemed
stage IV
- Any involvement of the liver parenchyma
- During laparotomy, the contralateral ovary should be biopsied because 5%
of all Ia cancers established by gross inspection will have occult microscopic
disease on the opposite ovary. Some advocate leaving the opposite ovary
undisturbed if it is of normal size or appearance.
|
TREATMENT |
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Medical Care: A preponderance
(75-80%) of dysgerminomas present as stage I cancers and, therefore, can be
treated by surgical resection alone with a unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.
This is preferred when attempting to preserve fertility; however, diligent
follow-up care, with serial pelvic examinations and tumor markers (ie, hCG, AFP,
LDH) is mandatory if resection is the only treatment modality.
The role of adjuvant therapy should be reserved for resectable yet advanced
tumors. Chemotherapy usually is the adjuvant of choice to spare fertility and is
used with recurrence after radiation therapy. Radiation therapy can be
administered to patients with tumors that are stage I-III.
- The 4 regimens for chemotherapy are as follows: (1) vincristine,
actinomycin D, and cyclophosphamide (VAC), (2) methotrexate, actinomycin D,
and chlorambucil (MAC), (3) vincristine, bleomycin, and cisplatin (VBP), (4)
bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin (BEP). Although the efficacy has been
analyzed for each protocol, advanced disease or recurrent dysgerminoma is more
responsive to the BEP protocol.
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- Bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin protocol
- Bleomycin - Max 30 U IV per wk X 9; dose at 20U/m2
- Etoposide - VP-16 100 mg/m2 days 1-5 q3wk X 3; reduced 20%
for granulocytic fever or previous radiotherapy
- Cisplatin - 20 mg/m2 days 1-5 q3wk X 3
- Vincristine, actinomycin D, and cyclophosphamide protocol
- Vincristine - 1.5 mg/m2; max 2.5 mg qwk X 12
- Actinomycin - 0.5 mg IV over 5 d q4wk
- Cyclophosphamide - 5-7 mg/kg over 5 d q4wk
- Vincristine, bleomycin, and cisplatin protocol
- Vinblastine - 12 mg/m2 q3wk X 4 courses
- Bleomycin - 20 U/m2 (max 30 U) qwk X 7 courses, with 8th
course given in wk 10
- Cisplatin - 20 mg/m2 qd X 5 q3wk for 3-4 courses
- Chlorpromazine - 25-50 mg PO/IM/PR q4h
- Lorazepam 1-2 mg PO/IV q6h
- Dexamethasone 8 mg IV prior to cisplatin and 4 mg q4h X 2
- Radiation is used to treat periaortic and pelvic lymph node metastases.
Shielding the remaining ovary in an attempt to preserve fertility is not
uncommon. Oophoropexy also may be used to hold the remaining ovary
mechanically away from the radiation field.
- Radiation therapy is recommended for any dysgerminomas staged Ib-III.
The field of exposure extends from T11-L5, with shielding of the
contralateral ovary and the femur head.
- The use of radiation in stage Ia cancers is considered precautionary.
Most patients present with stage I disease and usually can be treated with
simple resection (eg, unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy).
- De Palo, Freed, and Lawson developed the 3 major radiation therapy
protocols. These protocols differ mainly in their treatment of the abdomen
for node-positive disease and in prophylactic treatment of the mediastinum.
- Primary therapy with radiation is reserved for patients who are
incapable of tolerating chemotherapy or surgical resection.
Surgical Care: Patients undergoing surgery for ovarian
cancer require a mechanical and/or antibiotic bowel preparation before surgery.
This contingency planning is critical in the case of unsuspected GI spread
requiring bowel resection. Additionally, nutritional supplementation may be
necessary, depending on the status of the patients.
- Dysgerminoma disease staged below Ia (ie, confined within the capsule of
only 1 ovary) is best treated with simple unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.
- A biopsy should be performed on the contralateral ovary at the time of
surgery if the ovary is enlarged or appears abnormal. Otherwise, performing
a biopsy of a normal contralateral ovary only diminishes fertility by
adhesion formation postbiopsy.
- Thorough studies have questioned the prophylactic removal of both
ovaries. Current recommendations advise against removal of the normal ovary
because this does nothing to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and commits
patients to early menopause and infertility.
- Residual microscopic disease is extinguished readily with chemotherapy
and radiation therapy, to which these cells are highly responsive. Clinical
oncologists and women wishing to preserve fertility have accepted adjuvant
therapy and sparing of the healthy contralateral ovary. . Recurrence after
chemotherapy and radiation therapy is highly uncommon, although the
literature reports 1 case.
- Bilateral disease is justification for bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. A
total abdominal hysterectomy is not mandatory, but may be performed
concurrently if patients are no longer interested in bearing children.
- Full staging is completed with peritoneal washings, infracolic omentectomy,
and lymph node biopsy before closure. A biopsy for unilateral disease may be
performed on the ipsilateral pelvic lymph nodes. Periaortic lymph node
sampling should be performed in both circumstances. Take great care to observe
carefully the retroperitoneal lymph nodes because these are the most common
sites of metastasis for this disease.
- According to current American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG)
recommendations, second-look laparotomies are not considered the standard of
care for dysgerminomas.
Consultations:
- Preoperative evaluation by a gastroenterologist is ideal in patients who
present with intestinal complaints.
- Consultation with a gynecologic oncologist is recommended when resection
requires surgery beyond the straightforward bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy
and hysterectomy.
- Further follow-up with oncology and/or radiation therapy is dictated by
the stage and extent of disease.
Diet:
- No special diet is recommended, although total parenteral nutrition and
supplementation is indicated in patients who are severely malnourished.
- The protein requirement, as with any cancer population, is increased due
to increased metabolic demands for nitrogen balance.
- Patient body weight is a good indication of overall oral and
protein/calorie intake.
- Anorexia due to food aversion, nausea, or generalized weakness should be
treated with antiemetics and enteric or parenteral nutritional support.
Activity:
- During the immediate postoperative recovery, advise patients not to lift
heavy objects to prevent strain on the abdominal wound.
- Patients may resume sexual activity if they do not have discomfort;
otherwise, painful intercourse should be discouraged because this may lead to
dyspareunia.
- Attempts to become pregnant should be postponed until completion of
postoperative convalescence and/or chemotherapy.
|
MEDICATION |
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The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce
morbidity, prevent complications, and induce remission.
Drug Category: Antineoplastics -- Treatment
entails chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Lesions staged higher than stage Ia
require a combination of VAC, VBP, or BEP.
Drug Name
¡@ |
Vincristine (Oncovin) -- Plant-derived
vinca alkaloid isolated from periwinkle. Interferes with microtubule
assembly, thus inhibiting cell growth in the M-phase. |
Adult Dose |
VAC protocol: 1.5 mg/m2 IV
qwk for 12 wk; not to exceed 2.5 mg |
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity; Charcot-Marie-Tooth
syndrome |
Interactions |
Acute pulmonary reaction may occur when
taken concurrently with mitomycin-C; itraconazole inhibits CYP3A and may
accentuate neurotoxic side effects of vincristine |
Pregnancy |
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has
not been established. |
Precautions |
Caution in patients diagnosed with
severe cardiopulmonary or hepatic impairment and patients with preexisting
neuromuscular disease; dose is limited by neurotoxicity; with early use
watch for predominantly peripheral nerve disorders (eg, foot drop,
paresthesias, ataxia, loss of deep tendon reflexes); motor neuropathy (eg,
extremity weakness, cranial nerve palsies) can be manifested in late stages
of treatment |
Drug Name
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Actinomycin-D (Cosmegen) -- DNA
intercalator that covalently binds to guanine, forming a complex preventing
RNA polymerase from transcribing DNA. Higher doses lead to inhibition of DNA
synthesis. |
Adult Dose |
VAC protocol: 0.5 mg IV given over 5 d
q4wk |
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity; chicken
pox or herpes zoster infection |
Interactions |
Interacts with radiation therapy;
dermatologic changes (eg, hyperpigmentation, desquamation, vesiculation) and
reactivation of myelitis or enteritis in irradiated regions is not uncommon;
greater myelosuppression and GI toxicity also reported with simultaneous use
with radiation therapy |
Pregnancy |
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has
not been established. |
Precautions |
Extremely myelosuppressive,
predisposing patients to increased risk of bleeding and infection; monitor
daily with CBC and platelet counts; do not administer to infants due to
greater frequency of toxic effects |
Drug Name
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Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan, Neosar) --
Chemically related to nitrogen mustards. As an alkylating agent, the
mechanism of action of the active metabolites may involve cross-linking of
DNA, which may interfere with growth of normal and neoplastic cells. |
Adult Dose |
VAC protocol: 5-7 mg/kg IV given over 5
d q4wk |
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity; severely
depressed bone marrow function |
Interactions |
Allopurinol may increase risk of
bleeding or infection and enhance myelosuppressive effects of
cyclophosphamide; may potentiate doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity; may
reduce digoxin serum levels and antimicrobial effects of quinolones;
chloramphenicol may increase half-life of cyclophosphamide while decreasing
metabolite concentrations; may increase effect of anticoagulants;
coadministration with high doses of phenobarbital may increase rate of
metabolism and leukopenic activity of cyclophosphamide; thiazide diuretics
may prolong cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia and neuromuscular blockade
by inhibiting cholinesterase activity |
Pregnancy |
D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions |
Regularly examine hematologic profile
(particularly neutrophils and platelets) to monitor for hematopoietic
suppression; regularly examine urine for RBCs, which may precede hemorrhagic
cystitis |
Drug Name
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Etoposide (Toposar) -- Inhibits
topoisomerase II and causes DNA strand breakage, causing cell proliferation
to arrest in the late S or early
G2 portion of the cell cycle.
Therapy should be withheld or suspended if platelet counts are <50,000 or
absolute neutrophil counts are <500/mm3.
Reduce dose 20% for granulocytic fever or previous radiotherapy.
|
Adult Dose |
BEP protocol: 100 mg/m2 IV
days 1-5 q3wk for 3 wk |
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity; IT
administration may cause death |
Interactions |
May prolong the effects of warfarin and
increase the clearance of methotrexate; cyclosporine and etoposide have
additive effects in the cytotoxicity of tumor cells |
Pregnancy |
D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions |
Bleeding and severe myelosuppression
may occur; side effects include GI upset and alopecia; monitor for
anaphylactoid reaction during and immediately after treatment |
Drug Name
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Bleomycin (Blenoxane) -- A
copper-chelating glycoprotein capable of inducing DNA strand scission breaks
via oxidative processes. This drug is eliminated by the kidneys. |
Adult Dose |
BEP protocol: 20 U/m2 IV qwk
for 9 wk; not to exceed 30 U
VBP protocol: 20 U/m2 IV qwk for 7 courses with 8th course given
in week 10; not to exceed 30 U
|
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity;
significant renal function impairment; compromised pulmonary function |
Interactions |
May decrease plasma levels of digoxin
and phenytoin; cisplatin may increase toxicity of bleomycin and also lead to
hypomagnesemia; although rare, some patients concurrently receiving
vinblastine experience a Raynaudlike syndrome |
Pregnancy |
D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions |
Caution in renal impairment; possibly
secreted in breast milk; monitor for side effects during and after
treatment; the most common side effect is mucocutaneous toxicity (50%);
early warning signs of this condition include hypoesthesia and progression
to hyperesthesia and paresthesias; the dose-limiting effect is determined by
pulmonary toxicity (ie, interstitial pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis);
dyspnea and rales are early warning signs (chest x-rays should be performed
q1-2wk while on therapy, and antibiotics should be prescribed immediately if
infectious pneumonitis is suspected) |
Drug Name
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Cisplatin (Platinol) -- Inhibits DNA
synthesis and, thus, cell proliferation by causing DNA cross-links and
denaturation of double helix.
In general, the drug should not be administered if the leukocyte count is
<4000/mm3 and platelets <100,000/mm3. Renally
excreted; those with impaired renal function should postpone therapy. Not to
be administered to patients with serum creatinine >1.5 mg/dL and BUN >25 mg/dL.
Administered IV in saline solution.
|
Adult Dose |
BEP protocol: 20 mg/m2 IV
days 1-5 q3wk for 3 wk
VBP protocol: 20 U/m2 qd 5 times q3-4wk for 4 courses
|
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity,
preexisting renal insufficiency, myelosuppression, and hearing impairment
|
Interactions |
Increases toxicity of bleomycin,
furosemide, and ethacrynic acid; phenytoin excretion and metabolism are
hindered by cisplatin (monitor levels) |
Pregnancy |
D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions |
Administer adequate hydration before
and 24 h after cisplatin dosing to reduce risk of nephrotoxicity;
myelosuppression, ototoxicity, hypomagnesemia, nausea and vomiting, may
occur |
Drug Name
¡@ |
Vinblastine (Velban) -- Vinca alkaloid,
works by inhibiting microtubule arrangement, inhibiting cell growth in the
M-phase. |
Adult Dose |
VBP protocol: 12 mg/m2 q3wk
for 4 courses |
Pediatric Dose |
Not established |
Contraindications |
Documented hypersensitivity and bone
marrow suppression |
Interactions |
Phenytoin plasma levels may be reduced
when administered concomitantly with vinblastine; with mitomycin,
erythromycin, and itraconazole, the toxicity of vinblastine may
significantly increase |
Pregnancy |
D - Unsafe in pregnancy |
Precautions |
Caution in patients diagnosed with
impaired liver function and neurotoxicity; when patient is receiving
mitomycin C, monitor closely for shortness of breath and bronchospasm;
tumors can be exquisitely sensitive to this medication, causing excessive
purine breakdown and hyperuricemia (can be prevented with copious hydration,
allopurinol, and alkalinization of the urine); caution in cachexia,
ulcerative skin lesions, and elderly patients |
|
FOLLOW-UP |
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Further Inpatient Care:
¡@
- Follow-up care and treatment is conducted in the outpatient setting (see
Further Outpatient Care).
Further Outpatient Care:
¡@
- Follow-up care depends on the status of metastatic disease. If no
metastasis is observed at the time of laparotomy or laparoscopy, conduct
observation and a physical examination every 2 months for the first 2 years,
then every 6 months.
- A CT scan should be performed during months 6 and 12.
- An increasing trend warrants repeat body imaging and possible laparotomy.
- Follow-up care for patients with metastatic disease requires mandatory
adjuvant chemotherapy followed by a second-look laparotomy at 2-5 years.
In/Out Patient Meds:
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Transfer:
¡@
- The need for transfer to a tertiary facility is determined predominantly
by complications of surgery or chemotherapy. Transfer patients requiring
intubation or invasive hemodynamic monitoring to a facility with intensive
care capabilities.
Deterrence/Prevention:
¡@
- No methods of deterrence or prevention for this disease are known.
Complications:
¡@
- Standard surgical complications (eg, bleeding, infection, bowel or bladder
injury) and anesthetic complications apply.
- Medical complications from chemotherapy are common; stomatitis (methotrexate)
and pulmonary complications (bleomycin) are reported most frequently.
- Adhesion formation following surgery or radiation therapy can lead to
bowel obstruction and/or decreased fertility.
Prognosis:
¡@
- Prognosis depends on staging of tumor.
- Five-year survival rates are as follows:
- Stage III with retroperitoneal disease - 24%
- Ten-year survival rates, comparing conservative surgery alone versus
surgery plus radiation, are 92% and 85%, respectively.
- As a rule, any peritoneal involvement carries a poor prognosis. Contrary
to previous beliefs, no correlation exists between tumor size and prognosis.
Patient Education:
- Educate patients about the importance of follow-up care during the first 2
years after initial therapy because 90% of recurrences will manifest during
this time.
|
MISCELLANEOUS |
¡@ |
Medical/Legal Pitfalls:
- Failure to observe until 16 weeks gestation before performing surgery on a
pregnant patient with a presumed dysgerminoma
- Failure to remove all gonads in patients with concomitant karyotypic
abnormalities due to risk of gonadoblastoma formation
- Five percent of all dysgerminomas are associated with genetic disorders
of the ovaries (ie, karyotypic abnormalities - 46XY testicular feminization,
gonadal dysgenesis; 45X/46XY mixed gonadal dysgenesis). Typically, these
individuals have streak gonads. Under these unusual circumstances, the
surgeon must remove both the dysgerminoma and the contralateral streak gonad
to prevent gonadoblastoma formation. Since these individuals already are
sterile, fertility preservation is not an issue.
- Individuals with a Y chromosome revealed through karyotyping require a
delayed gonadectomy after puberty because secondary sexual characteristics
should be allowed to develop before removal.
- Medical abnormalities associated with each respective genetic disease
also must be addressed.
Special Concerns:
¡@
- Fortunately, most adnexal masses found in pregnancy resolve
spontaneously within the first trimester. For this reason, a more cautious
observational approach is advocated up to 16 weeks gestation. Moreover, risk
of aborting a viable fetus with surgery in the first trimester approaches
30%.
- Two percent of masses presenting in pregnancy are malignant (dysgerminomas
included). Most (90%) dysgerminomas found in pregnancy are unilateral.
- If surgery is indicated, the ideal intervention time is 16-18 weeks
gestation. General anesthesia should be used. Placement of a
higher-than-usual vertical or paramedian incision is necessary because the
ovary becomes an abdominal structure after 16 weeks.
- Avoid biopsy of the contralateral ovary if the ovary appears normal.
- Also avoid lymph node sampling if the uterus proves obfuscatory.
- Frozen sections should be taken at the time of surgery. If the pathology
is hyperreactioluteinalis or luteoma, nonintervention is indicated and the
abdomen should be closed.
- Benign or low-grade tumors generally require unilateral
salpingo-oophorectomy, whereas bilateral involvement and malignant or
metastatic tumors require bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy ?total abdominal
hysterectomy. If patients are at or near term, delivery of the fetus is
performed, otherwise, pregnant patients with flagrant bilateral malignancies
should be treated as if they are not pregnant and should receive a total
abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.
- Postoperative progesterone has unproved efficacy. Use of tocolytics
postoperatively has not been studied well.
- The 5-year patient survival rate for dysgerminoma removal in pregnancy
is encouraging at 90%. Fetal mortality approaches 25%.
¡@
- Adjuvant chemotherapy in patients who are pregnant reportedly is
successful when used during the second and third trimesters with
methotrexate and cisplatin. Chlorambucil has been used as early as the first
trimester.
|
PICTURES |
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Caption: Picture 1. Dysgerminoma,
microscopic image at 20X |
|
Picture Type: Photo |
|
BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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- American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology: Educational bulletin:
Ovarian Cancer. ACOG compendium of selected publications. No 250; 2000:
667-675.
- Cotran, RS, Kumar, V, Robbins, SL: Female genital tract. In: Robbins
Pathologic Basis of Disease. WB Saunders; 1996: 1127-1180.
- Disaia, PJ, Creasman, WT: Clinical Gynecologic Oncology. Mosby-Year Book;
1997: 282-374.
- Gershenson DM, Copeland LJ, del Junco G: Second-look laparotomy in the
management of malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary. Obstet Gynecol 1986
Jun; 67(6): 789-93[Medline].
- Harvey, RA, Champe, PC, Mycek, MJ: Anticancer drugs. In: Lippincott's
Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 1992: 337-360.
- Hoskins, WJ, Perez, CA, Young, RC: Epithelial ovarian cancer. In:
Principles and Practice of Gynecologic Oncology. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins; 1992: 715-781.
- Isselbacher, KJ, Braunwald, E, Wilson, JD: Principles of cancer therapy.
In: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 13th ed. McGraw-Hill; 1994:
1826-1840.
- Thompson, JD, Rock, JA: Surgical treatment of ovarian cancer. In:
Telinde's Operative Gynecology. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;
1992: 1303-1328.
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